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Watercolor painting
Watercolor
(
US
) or
watercolour
(
UK
), also
aquarelle
from French, is a
painting
method. A watercolor is the
medium
or the resulting
artwork
, in which the
paints
are made of
pigments
suspended in a water soluble vehicle. The traditional and most common support for watercolor paintings is paper; other supports include
papyrus
, bark papers, plastics,
vellum
or
leather
,
fabric
, wood, and
canvas
. In East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as
brush painting
or scroll painting. In
Chinese
,
Korean
, and
Japanese painting
it has been the dominant medium, often in monochrome black or browns. India,
Ethiopia
and other countries also have long traditions.
Fingerpainting
with watercolor paints originated in China.
History
Although watercolor painting is extremely old, dating perhaps to the cave paintings of paleolithic Europe, and has been used for
manuscript illumination
since at least Egyptian times but especially in the European Middle Ages, its continuous history as an art medium begins in the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist
Albrecht Dürer
(1471–1528) who painted several fine botanical, wildlife and landscape watercolors, is generally considered among the earliest exponents of the medium. An important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by
Hans Bol
(1534–1593) as part of the
Dürer Renaissance
.
Despite this early start, watercolors were generally used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons (small scale design drawings). Among notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were
Van Dyck
(during his stay in England),
Claude Lorrain
,
Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione
, and many
Dutch
and
Flemish
artists. However, botanical and wildlife illustrations are perhaps the oldest and most important tradition in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular in the Renaissance, both as hand tinted
woodblock
illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on
vellum
or paper. Botanical artists have always been among the most exacting and accomplished watercolor painters, and even today watercolors—with their unique ability to summarize, clarify and idealize in full color—are used to illustrate scientific and museum publications. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with artists such as
John James Audubon
, and today many naturalist field guides are still illustrated with watercolor paintings.
Materials
Paint
Watercolor paint consists of four principal ingredients:
pigments
, natural or synthetic, mineral or organic;
arabic gum
as a
binder
to hold the pigment in suspension and fix the pigment to the painting surface;
additives
like
glycerin
,
ox gall
,
honey
, preservatives: to alter the viscosity, hiding, durability or color of the pigment and vehicle mixture; and
solvent
, the substance used to thin or dilute the paint for application and that evaporates when the paint hardens or dries.
The term "
watermedia
" refers to any painting medium that uses water as a solvent and that can be applied with a
brush
,
pen
or sprayer; this includes most
inks
,
watercolors
,
temperas
,
gouaches
and modern
acrylic paints
.
The term
watercolor
refers to paints that use water soluble, complex carbohydrates as a binder. Originally (16th to 18th centuries) watercolor binders were sugars and/or hide glues, but since the 19th century the preferred binder is natural
gum arabic
, with
glycerin
and/or
honey
as additives to improve plasticity and dissolvability of the binder, and with other chemicals added to improve product shelf life.
Bodycolor
is a watercolor made as opaque as possible by a heavy pigment concentration, and
gouache
is a watercolor made opaque by the addition of a colorless opacifier (such as
chalk
or
zinc oxide
). Modern acrylic paints are based on a completely different chemistry that uses water soluble
acrylic resin
as a binder.
Commercial watercolors
Watercolor painters before c.1800 had to make paints themselves using pigments purchased from an apothecary or specialized "colourman"; the earliest commercial paints were small, resinous blocks that had to be wetted and laboriously "rubbed out" in water.
Modern commercial watercolor paints are available in two forms: tubes or pans. The majority of paints sold are in collapsible metal tubes in standard sizes (typically 7.5, 15 or 37 ml.), and are formulated to a consistency similar to toothpaste. Pan paints (actually, small dried cakes or bars of paint in an open plastic container) are usually sold in two sizes,
full pans
(approximately 3 cc of paint) and
half pans
(favored for compact paint boxes). Pans are historically older but commonly perceived as less convenient; they are most often used in portable metal paint boxes, also introduced in the mid 19th century, and are preferred by landscape or naturalist painters.
Among the most widely used brands of commercial watercolors today are Winsor & Newton, Daler Rowney, Talens (Rembrandt), Sennelier, Schmincke, Daniel Smith, DaVinci, Holbein, Maimeri and M. Graham.
Thanks to modern industrial organic chemistry, the variety, saturation (brilliance) and permanence of artists' colors available today is greater than ever before. However, the art materials industry is far too small to exert any market leverage on global dye or pigment manufacture. With rare exceptions, all modern watercolor paints utilize pigments that were manufactured for use in printing inks, automotive and architectural paints, wood stains, concrete,
ceramics
and plastics colorants, consumer packaging, foods, medicines, textiles and cosmetics. Paint manufacturers buy very small supplies of these pigments, mill (mechanically mix) them with the vehicle, solvent and additives, and package them.
Color names
Many artists are confused or misled by labeling practices common in the art materials industry. The marketing name for a paint, such as "cobalt blue" or "emerald green", is often only a poetic color evocation or proprietary moniker; there is no legal requirement that it describe the pigment that gives the paint its color.
To remedy this confusion, in 1990 the art materials industry voluntarily began listing pigment ingredients on the paint packaging, using the common pigment name (such as "cobalt blue" or "cadmium red"), and/or a standard pigment identification code, the
generic color index name
(PB28 for cobalt blue, PR108 for cadmium red) assigned by the Society of Dyers and Colourists (UK) and the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (USA) and known as the
Colour Index International
. This allows artists to choose paints according to their pigment ingredients, rather than the poetic labels assigned to them by marketers. Paint pigments and formulations vary across manufacturers, and watercolor paints with the same color name (e.g., "sap green") from different manufacturers can be formulated with completely different ingredients.
Pigments characteristics
Staining
is another characteristic assigned to watercolor paints: a staining paint is difficult to remove or lift from the painting support after it has been applied or dried. Less staining colors can be lightened or removed almost entirely when wet, or when rewetted and then "lifted" by stroking gently with a clean, wet brush and then blotted up with a paper towel. In fact, the staining characteristics of a paint depend in large part on the composition of the support (paper) itself, and on the particle size of the pigment. Staining is increased if the paint manufacturer uses a dispersant to reduce the paint milling (mixture) time, because the dispersant acts to drive pigment particles into crevices in the paper pulp, dulling the finished color.
Granulation
refers to the appearance of separate, visible pigment particles in the finished color, produced when the paint is substantially diluted with water and applied with a juicy brush stroke; pigments notable for their watercolor granulation include
viridian
(PG18), cerulean blue (PG35), cobalt violet (PV14) and some
iron oxide
pigments (PBr7).
Flocculation
refers to a peculiar clumping typical of
ultramarine
pigments (PB29 or PV15). Both effects display the subtle effects of water as the paint dries, are unique to watercolors, and are deemed attractive by accomplished watercolor painters. This contrasts with the trend in commercial paints to suppress pigment textures in favor of homogeneous, flat color.
Grades
Commercial watercolor paints come in two grades: "Artist" (or "Professional") and "Student".
Artist quality paints are usually formulated with fewer fillers (
kaolin
or
chalk
) which results in richer color and vibrant mixes.
Student grade paints have less pigment, and often are formulated using two or more less expensive pigments. Artist and Professional paints are more expensive but many consider the quality worth the higher cost.
Brushes
A brush consists of three parts: the tuft, the ferrule and the handle.
The
tuft
is a bundle of animal hairs or synthetic fibers tied tightly together at the base;
The
ferrule
is a metal sleeve that surrounds the tuft, gives the tuft its cross sectional shape, provides mechanical support under pressure, and protects from water the glue joint between the trimmed, flat base of the tuft and the handle;
The lacquered wood
handle
, which is typically shorter in a watercolor brush than in an oil painting brush, has a distinct shape—widest just behind the ferrule and tapering to the tip.
When painting, painters typically hold the brush just behind the ferrule for the smoothest brushstrokes.
Drybrush
At the other extreme from wet in wet techniques,
Drybrush
is the watercolor painting technique for precision and control, supremely exemplified in many botanical paintings and in the drybrush watercolors of
Andrew Wyeth
. Raw (undiluted) paint is picked up with a premoistened, small brush (usually a #4 or smaller), then applied to the paper with small hatching or crisscrossing brushstrokes. The brush tip must be wetted but not overcharged with paint, and the paint must be just fluid enough to transfer to the paper with slight pressure and without dissolving the paint layer underneath. The goal is to build up or mix the paint colors with short precise touches that blend to avoid the appearance of pointilism. The cumulative effect is objective, textural and highly controlled, with the strongest possible value contrasts in the medium. Often it is impossible to distinguish a good drybrush watercolor from a color photograph or oil painting, and many drybrush watercolors are varnished or lacquered after they are completed to enhance this resemblance.
Scumbling
(in the 19th century, called "crumbling color" or "dragging color") is an unrelated technique of loading a large, moist flat or round brush with concentrated paint, wicking out the excess, then lightly dragging the side or heel of the tuft across the paper to produce a rough, textured appearance, for example to represent beach grass, rocky surfaces or glittering water. The amount of texture that can be produced depends on the finish or tooth of the paper (R or CP paper works best), the size of the brush, the consistency and quantity of the paint in the brush, and the pressure and speed of the brush stroke. Moist paper will cause the scumbled color to diffuse slightly before it dries.
Sketch (drawing)
A
sketch
(ultimately from
Ancient Greek
σχέδιος - schedios "temporary"
) is a rapidly executed freehand
drawing
that is not intended as a finished work. If in
oil paint
it is called an
oil sketch
. In general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Artist's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time consuming (as in the case of a large
painting
or
fresco
). Sketching sharpens an artist's ability to focus on the most important elements of a subject and is a prescribed part of artistic development for students.
Dry media such as pencil or
pastel
are often preferred due to time constraints, but a quickly done
watercolor
study or even quickly modeled
clay
or soft wax can also be considered a 'sketch' in the broader sense of the term.
Graphite
pencils being a relatively new invention, the artists of the
Renaissance
could make sketches using the expensive method of a silver stylus on specially prepared paper (known as
silverpoint
), with results similar to a modern pencil sketch, or, more cheaply, using charcoal, chalk, or pen-and-ink.
Contrary to popular belief, artists often use
erasers
when drawing; the eraser may be used to remove rough construction lines, or to soften lines for visual effect. The most commonly used eraser for pencil drawing is the
kneaded eraser
, which has a soft, sticky surface that enables the artist to lift the graphite or charcoal from the drawing surface without smudging. White plastic erasers can cleanly erase line work, but tend to smudge heavy shading.
The sketchbooks of
Leonardo da Vinci
and
Edgar Degas
are two examples of many done by famous artists which have become art objects in their own right, although many pages show more thoughtful
studies
rather than true sketches.
The ability to quickly record impressions through sketching has found varied purposes in today's culture. Courtroom artists are usually sketchers. Sketches drawn to help authorities find or identify wanted people are called
composite sketches
. Street performers in popular tourist areas often include artists who sketch portraits within minutes.
A sketch method of reproducing
photographs
is done with a photographic enlarger in a dark room. The
negative
image is projected on the paper where the sketch is to be done. All the light shades are penciled until the paper is all the same shade.
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